[ 13 J Who Is the LORD?
Exodus is essentially a book about knowing God through personal experience. The plot centers on the relationship that develops between the LORD God and the Israelites, from the dramatic meeting with Moses at the burning bush (3:1-4:17) to the glory of the LORD filling the tabernacle (40:34-38). Through- out Exodus, God always takes the initiative, revealing himself not only through words but also through signs and wonders. In differing ways he reveals his most significant attributes: his sovereign majesty, his holiness, his power to perform signs and wonders, his awesome glory, his righteousness, his compassion.
An Overview of Exodus
The book of Exodus continues the story of Genesis by tracing the destiny of Jacob’s children. Although Exodus itself forms a continuous account, it may be divided into two parts, both focusing on the theme of knowing God. The first half of the book is dominated by the theme of coming to a personal knowledge of God. At the outset Moses encounters God at the burning bush and in the ensuing conversation discovers much about God’s nature, including his divine name, Yahweh(= “the LORD,” 3:1-4:17).1 The theme reappears when Pharaoh expresses his ignorance about the LORD: “Who is Yahweh, that I should obey him aucl let Israel go? I do not know Yahweh and I will not let Israel go” (5:2). As the
5 b ~-Inmo st English translations the divine name Yahweh is rendered “the LORD.” See footnote
e ow. In this chapter I quote NIV but sometimes replace “the LORD” with “Yahweh.”
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11 1: M A I N T 11 E )I,\ Es O.. T II r p t N TA r E u(.’ II
. . nd wonders unfold, the Egyptians gradually come to ackn \ various signs a d fi II I Ph h ow edo
h • n power When Go na y ures arao and his ar- ,:,C Yahwe ‘s sovere1g · . . . , .. y to the·
h . h L ke of Reeds 2 1t 1s with the expressed purpose that “the E . tr
cleat m t e a ‘ ,, 1 \ b • f . gypt1ans ·11 k h t I am Yahweh (14:4, 18). n ce e ration o their deliveran f wi nowt a . . . ce rorn E the
Israelites worship God 111 a dynamic song of praise that high\’ h gypt, h d . 1·k ig ts h
. k ledge of him: “Who among t ego s 1s I e you, l01 Yahweh) ,,m r e1r now . . I . · wno . l’k ma,·estic in holiness, awesome mg ory, workmg wonders)” (lS 1 1s I e you- · : l)
Th cond half of Exodus further develops the theme of knowing G d b · e se f . I I . h. b O y f . 11 the establishment o a spec1a re auons 1p etween Yahweh d ocusmg o . an the Israelites. To this end the narrauve concentrates on two topics that receive extensive coverage: the making_ of ~ c~venant and the const~uction of the tab-
I 1 The former of these, like s1gnmg a contract or makmg marriage vow ernac e. . . . . s, sets out the conditions under whteh the lsr~~htes must hve 111 order to enjoy an ongoing relationship with God; these conditions are recorded in the Decalogue (l0:3-17) and the Book of the C~venant (20:22-23:33). lf the people wish to experience God’s continued blessmg and presence, they must refle~t his righ- teous and compassionate nature. Exodus records not only the ~stabhshment of the initial covenant agreement (Exod. 19-24) but ~\so t~e makmg of the golden calf, an event that almost brings the covenant relauonsh1p to an early and abrupt
I · n (Exod 32-34) The construction of the tabernacle forms a natural cone us10 • · . . . . I t the.making of the divine covenant. Built accord mg to d1vme mstruction, seque o ‘ . h “d f h
the tabernacle becomes the focal point of the_ Lo~ s presence mt e ‘.111 st o _t e
I h h l·ts materials and structure, 1t remmds them of God s sovereign, peop e; t roug .
h I F 11 W ·1ng the erection of the tabernacle, the LORD takes up residence o y nature. o o . .
amid his people (40:34-38), bringing the book of Exodus to a fimng conclusion.
The Israelites in Egypt
The initial two chapters of Exodus record events ~hat span a perti o:.rvf eral centuries and form a bridge between the deta iled account o t e I e o
. ‘ “sea/lake of reeds” or ” recd sea/lake” (cf. “Sea of 2. The Hebrew expression yam-sup means 5·4 22· 23·3 1) Various factors need to be
Reeds,” NJPS, NIV mg. , NRSV mg.: rn: 19; ~3:18d; 1 .f’ ‘. F .. s~ the Hebrew term yam and h . ‘dent1fy this bo yo water. ir ‘ . taken into account w en trymg to 1 I k Th OT Hebrew has no alternanve
its Greek equivalent 8aAaooa (th~lassa) may den~te a ,~ . c.NJ;S NRSV]; Job 14:11). The La~e word for lake (cf. Deut. 33:23 [yam translated as – west ~:m 34: 11 and Josh. 13:27 (with yam of Galilee (Sea of Kinnereth) is designated a yam m . k . I tion of Exodus rendered translated by 8aAaooa in the LXX) . Second, the earliest Gr~n \;: ~::rsions (cf. KJV, RSV, NIV, yam-sup as “Red Sea,” and this tradition is reflected m mo:~f t:e el-Ballah Lakes and not the Red ESV, NET). However, yam-sup probably ref~rs to the regw .. The Evidence for the Authentrc1ty Sea as known today U, K. Hoffmeier, Anc,ent Israel’~ t”t d University Press, 2005], 75-109; of the Wilderness Tradition [Oxford and New York. x r d ” BAR 33 [2007]: 3o-41 , 77) . idem, “Out of Egypt: The Archaeological Context ofs t~~ a~~ ;;below.
3 . For a fuller discussion of these topics, see chap ·
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Mediterranean Sea
(-barnea\t• , ,
~ (\Bitter Lakes , ‘ “. ‘–~ , .
su:’i-:”‘\ Bir el-Murr , ,’, ~ Ayun Musa (Elim)
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Joseph in Genesis 37-50 and the report of the Israelites’ release from Egypt in Exodus 3-15. Not only do chapters 1-2 presuppose that the reader is already familiar with the book of Genesis; they also continue an important trend in Genesis regarding how God is portrayed. Though Genesis begins with God as the central participant in the story, a change occurs throughout the book as God gradually retreats from the center of the stage and adopts the role of an offstage director. We see this most clearly with Joseph; unlike his immediate ancestors, he has no direct encounter with the LORD. Rather, God controls the destiny of both Joseph and his wider family without revealing himself directly.
The opening two chapters of Exodus also convey the impression that God no l~nger reveals himself in person. The narrative highlights only his provi- dential care as reflected in the case of the two midwives and inferred in the remarkable increase of the Israelites. Against this background the narrator’s ~mments in 2:23-25 are significant. Although the Israelites may have felt that
od was no longer concerned about them, such was not the case. God was
1
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Tut- MA 1 N T111 M t: ~ 0 1 1111- r1 N 1A1, u … .- 11
well aware of their situation, and when the time was rioht hew Id . . …, , ou a . . dramatic way to free them from oppression. 1.:t 111 a
The opening verses of Exodus contain an important allusion b ·k esis 1. The description of the Israelites as being fruitful and mult~cl ~o Gen- filling the land echoes God ‘s mandate to humanity in Genesis ~-i~lg and repeated to N()ah (~en. 9: I_). Although Exodus ~ortrays Abraham;s d~ ~ater dants as fulfillmg this creation mandate, almost immediately they seen- opposition in the form of the Egyptian king, who subjects the~ncounter other things, to building store-cities for his benefit. This city-build· ‘ among . h I . h G d d · mg stand m contrast tot e temp e-ctty t at o es,res to establish on earth L s freed from Pharaoh’s control, the Israelites devote themselves to co _ · a~er,
. . nstructin the tabernacle, a portable residence for God that marks the first stag g
. f I . , e toward the establishment o the temp e-c1ty. Pharaoh s treatment of the Isr I’ underscores his opposition to the fulfillment of God’s plans for er ae Hes . . eat,on This sets the scene for the confrontation between Pharaoh and Yahw h h ·
e t at dominates Exodus 1-15. . Exodus 2 also gives special_ at~enti~n _to the ev~nts_ sur_rounding the early
l,fe of Moses and his later exile 111 M1d1an. By h1ghhghtmg his remarkabl deliverance from death at birth and the irony of his growing up within the household of Pharaoh, the narrative anticipates the important role that Mose: will play within the rest of the book. Furthermore, the nature of this role is hinted at by his actions on behalf of those who are oppressed by others (i.e. his concern for oppressed Israelite slaves; his intervention on behalf of Jethro•~ daughters). With Moses’s flight to Midian, the scene is set for God to reveal himself in a most remarkable way.
The LoRD Reveals Himself to Moses
Although the reader is partiaily prepared for the encounter between God and Moses, it must have come as a surprise to Moses. Several elements of the meeting are worth noticing briefly. First, Moses encounters God in a burn- ing bush. Throughout Exodus the divine presence is frequently symbolized by fire, smoke, and cloud (13:21-22; 14:24; 19:18; 24:17; 40:38; cf. Lev. 9:24; 10:2; Num. 9:15-16; 11 :1-3; 14:14; Deut. 1:33; 4 :11-12, 15, 24, 33, 36; 5:4-5, 22-26; 9:3, 10, 15; 10:4; 18:16). Second, Moses acknowledges God ‘s holiness by removing his sandals; God must be approached with caution. The concept of divine holiness reappears in Exodus (and especiaily Leviticus) as a major theme. 4 Third, having led his father-in-law’s flock through the desert to Horeb (v. 1), Moses will later lead the Israelites to the same location (cf. 3:12; 19:1-2), where they also will witness God’s holy presence revealed through fire.
4. See chap. 17 below.
WH o I s T U E L o ko l
1 h Ugh God initially introduces himself t M A t o O oses as ” h c the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and h t e od of your f;tth_er, of his identity reappears in verses 13-lS ht e MGod of Jacob” (3:6) he ,ssuc . . ‘ w en oses . . , t rne This request 1s important because the 1 1. inquires about · na · srae 1tes b i- d his . ‘.dual’s nature was reflected in one’s name In G . ~ •eve that an ·od1v1 h’ hi ‘ h db . enes,s dtffere 1 G d’s nature are 1g 1g te y the names used to de . . nt aspects of od Most High,” Gen. 14:18-20) , El Roi (“God wh s1gnate him: El Elyon (“Go . o sees me “c 16
Shaddai (“God Almighty,” Gen. 17: 1), El Olam (“God E •1 en. :13),
£/ · d h . ver astmg” G 33) Here God mtro uces 1mself by using the pers I ‘ en. 21: · 1· h · ” ona name “Yahweh” lated in most Eng 1s versions as the LORD” (Exod. 3.15) 5 , trans ” Y h h” . d . d . . The Hebrew name a we 1s enve from the verb “t b ,, d ·tt b ” Th J O e an means
h . _,, or ” he w1 e. e persona name “Yahweh” ·15 I I I ” e 1s . c ose y re ated to h h
rase in verse 14 that 1s perhaps best translated· ” I AM w 1 t e P . . · HO AM.” An bb eviated form of this phrase comes m the statement “I AM h a r .. ,, 1 h , as sem me
U,, (3:14). I AM trans ates t e Hebrew word ‘ehyeh h’ h Id I tO yo . ,, ‘ w IC cou a so b translated “l will be. However, when ‘ehyeh is used by God t f e “I ,, f G d I . o re er to himself, it must mean AM, or o a ready exists and is the actual speaker
this occasion. If God refers to himself as “I AM,” others speakin f h ‘ on . “H ,, Th’ I . go 1m will express this as E 1s. 1~ may exp am the origin of the divine name Yahweh, which appears to be derived from the verb “to be.” Although Yahw h could mean “HE WILL BE,” like ‘ehyeh it must be understood as referring : 0 the present time rather than the future.
Unlike previous designations, the name Yahweh does not restrict God’ s na- ture to any particular characteristic: HE IS WHO HE 1s. Furthermore, his nature does not change. He is the God worshiped by earlier generations (“the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob”) and generations yet to come: “This is my name forever, the name you shall call me from generation to generation” (3:15) .
God instructs Moses to return to Egypt and assemble the elders of Israel. With his brother, Aaron, they will petition Pharaoh ro take the Israelites on a short three-day journey into the desert so that they may serve their God (3: 18) . Pharaoh’s reaction to this relatively minor demand will underscore his strong antagonism toward the Israelites. He will refuse to accommodate them, not because their request is excessive, but because of his own hatred of them. Exodus 7-15 reinforces this initial observation. Pharaoh will not change his mind “unless a mighty hand compels him” (3:19). Eventually the influence of
5. The English translat ion “LoRo” fails to convey the idea that the Hebrew word yhwh is a personal name. Due.: to the veneration of God’s name, it became the practice of Jews to substitute the Hebrew word ‘adonay , “Lord,” for yhwh when they were reading the Bible. En- glish translations in the main have retained this tradition. When vowels were eventually added to the consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible in the medieval period, the vowels of ‘adontiy were used in conjunction with the consonants yhwh. This in turn led to the name “Yahweh” being wrongly read as “Jehovah.”
• 111 1
M ~I?-. T111 t.1 1, IJ I 1111 l’l f\1 \IIUIII
God ‘s f~a nd on the Egyptians will be sud1 thar they will readily give of th ,· possessions in order ro sec 1he Israelites leave Egypt ( 11 : 1-3; 12:35-36) Th err ·f ·11 · esc gr ts w, . compensate the lsr:1clircs for the suffering they have already endured
In s_p,re of theassuranct’ of God ‘s_ presence, Moses raises a prohle rn: What ,f the lsracfrtes do nor hcfrt·ve 111111? How wrlf he convince them h God has indeed appeared ro him? In response God provides three st at that involve miraculous transformations: Moses ‘s staff will become~ s gkns
. . . .. na c (4:2-4): /us hand wrll become leprous (4:6-7) ; Nrle water will become blo d (4 :9) . Moses wirncsses for himself the first rwo of these signs. The thi~ at this stage, must he ac,:epred by faith . Soon afterward , when a ll three ar~ later shown to the Israelites, they arc convinced that God has indeed sent Moses (4:30-31) .
When Moses first encounters Pharaoh, the Egyptian king displays his con- tempt toward Moses, Aaron, :rnd especially rhe LORD: “Who is the LORD th
, at I should obey him and let Israel go? I do nor know rhe LORD and I will nor let Israel go” (5:2 )! Although Pharaoh has no knowledge of the Lo1w, this will soon change dramaricall): The motif of knowing the LORD recurs frequenrf throughout the following chapters (cf. 6:7; 7:5, 17; 8:10, 22; 9:14, 16, 29; 10:i 14:4, 18). Having already revealed himself ro Moses, Aa ron, and the lsraelit; elders, God will now reveal himself powerfully to Pharaoh and the Egyptians.
A further divine speech ro Moses in 6 :28-7:7 anticipates the ” miraculous signs and wonders” (7:3 NIV 1984) that a rc ro dominate Exodus 7-14. Atten- tion is drawn ro rhe strengthening of Pharaoh ‘s heart and ro the “mighty acts of judgment” (7:4) by which God will lead Israel out of Egypt. God declares that as a result “the Egyptians will know that I am the LORD” (7:5). This sets rhe scene for rhe cycle of episodes that comprise 7:8-14:31.
Signs and Wonders in Egypt
The Exodus narrative devotes considerable space ro the account of the signs and wonders performed in Egypt. While they are often described as “the ten plagues,” this is not an entirely satisfactory designation. First, although the
biblical text refers ro a few of them individually as “plagues”7 (9:3 , 14, 15; 11: 1; cf. 8:2), as a whole rhey are more frequently designated “signs” (7:3; 8 :23; 10:1, 2) or “wonders” (4:21; 7:3; 11:9, 10; cf. “miracle” in 7:9). Second, there are actually eleven miraculous signs recorded in Exodus 7-12. The first of these, when the staff becomes a “snake” or more likely a “crocodile” (7:8-13 ), is
6. The personal name of Pharaoh is never given. For rhe reader, he is the unknown one. 7. In the NIV the rerm “plague” translares different Hebrew words, some of which would
• be more accurately rendered “strike” or “blow.” In Jewish tradition the miraculous events in Egypt are called rhe “ren strikes.”
92
W11 0 I s Tu e l o Ro?
lly not included in the list of ” plagues “•Th· I 11era d · rs was a so the fi . ge d ave Moses in or er to convince the Israelites that the L rst sr~ that Go g d to him (4:2-5). The next sign that Moses p f Ob RD had indeed ppeare . bl d (7· 14-25 er orms efore Ph h
a in water rnto oo . ), was also earlier used to d arao , rur: diine calling to the Israelites (4:8-9). Even though the lsermonstrate_Mo- ses on account of these signs (4:28-31), Pharaoh p aelrtes believed Moses . . bl ays no attentton to th
13 22). his own mag1c1ans are a e to perform the sam d em (7:Th’ individual accounts of the miraculous signs foll e wohn ers (7 :11 , 22).
e ow t e same p t •rh some variation to avoid monotony.9 Certain feat a tern,
but w1 . Th f h . ures are common t II !even episodes. e report o eac miraculous sign begin . h h 0
~ h: LORD said ro Moses” (7:8, 14; 8:1, 16, 20; 9:1, 8 13· 10~t2tI ·tlle·plh) rase, r h . . h G d · ‘ ‘ . ‘ ‘ · · The . . •arive for eac sign rests wit o , with every stage in th
,n1tt h h b . . . e encounter be- en Moses and P arao emg d1v111ely controlled Each · d h . ewe . . . 4 21 d 7 3
· ep1so e, ec omg h Predictions given
111 : an : -4, concludes with an e 1· · f t e . ,, b ” x p 1c1t re erence to rhe “hardent~g- –or et_ter,. stren~thening”-of Pharaoh’s heart (7:l3,
22. 8·15, 19, 32, 9.7, 12, 35, 10.20, 27, 11:10). The numerous refe ‘ · · f Ph h , h rences to the strengthenmg o arao s cart underline the importance of th. .f
d ·b d · 1 h • . . 1s mott which is escn e 111 two ways. n t e 1111t1al stages it is reported that Pharaoh
Strengthens his own heart (7: 13, 14, 22; 8:15 19 32· 9·34 35)· · h 1 . ‘ ‘ ‘ · , , 1n t e atter stages the narrattve states that the LORD strengthened Pharaoh’s heart (9:l2· 10:20, 27; 11 :10; 14:4, 8, 17). ,
Unfortunately, the concept of God’s “hardening” Pharaoh’s h · d
. cart 1s gener- ally misunderstoo , with many readers assuming that God caused Ph h
· h. ·11 I · f arao to act agamst 1s own_ w1 . t 1s o ten suggested that although Pharaoh wanted ro release the Israelites, God prevented him from doing th,·s H . . owever, a care- ful rea
11 dmg obfl theh_text reveals_ that by strengthening Pharaoh’s heart, God
~c~ua y ena es 1m to remam true to his inner convictions. To this end, 1t 1s important to observe that the strengthening of Pharaoh’ h I
f d . . s cart a ways
comes a ter a har ship 1s removed and Pharaoh is 110 longer b · d . . _ emg pressure into releasmg the Israelites. The motif of Pharaoh’s heart be· h d mg strengr enc
8. Jn Exod. 4:3 Moses’s staff becomes :t niihiis “snake”· in Exod 7·9-J0 · b · h. h · h. · ‘ ‘ · • re ecomes a tannin w rc rn t rs context probably refers to a crocodile. •
9- le has been suggested th:ic the plagues described in Exodus can be related co a series of natural phenomena rh:ir m:iy have occurred in ancient Egypt For exam I h · f h N.I bl . d I · · p e, c e turning o c e / e waters to 00 w:is l uc to an unusually high inundation of the river during the months
0 July _and AuguSr. The river became bloodlike due co the presence of red earth carried in :uspensron from the basins of the Blue Nile :ind Acbara rivers. Such an explanation, however, . oes not account for rhe presence of such “blood” in wooden buckets and stone jars everywhere 111h Egypr (_Exod. 7: 19). Nor docs It explain either che e:irlier signs chat Moses performed before t e Israelites (4·30) or th · · · · f h E · · · . · , e accrvmes o t e gypcran mag1crans (7:22). The cexc consiscencly ~phasizes the divine source of rhese events. This is indicated, e.g., by the many references co . oses or Aaron as stretching ouc their hands or a sc:iff in order to bring about che different
srgns or wonders Alrho h f h b · · . · ug some o t cse may e associated wrth natural phenomena, their occurrence 1s clearly arcribuccd ro divine intervention.
193
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Tu, M AI N T11 1 M l :,. n I l II l t• I N 1· A 1 I ll\” 11
194
reveals that God w·u t I E . k ‘ not h “I d . I s t tc gypt1,rn mg to release the Israelites will” I
w I c un er duress. •ng Y and d The st rengthening of Pharaoh ‘ s heart stands in sharp contr
evclopments that occur in the narrative. Although the E . ast to other can · · · JI d 1· -gyptta n 111ag· · • lllltla Y up IC::ttc the miraculous signs of Moses and A h icians rea h I 1 · · f aron t ey • c t tc mut o their power and affirm to Pharaoh “Tl · . · . 1′ s_·oon G d” (S • , 11s is t tc fin 0 : 19) • Later, it is specifically snted that they “cottld ger of M . h . • not stand b f
os~s ecause of the boils that were o n them” (9: 11). Similarly, Pharaoh’ c ore officials are gradually persuaded of the LORD’s power Whe,1 M . sown ” h . h • · oses pred· . t e worst a1lstorm that has ever fallen o n Egypt” (9 : 18) son f h lets
. . , l e o t e,n t k precautions aga111st this threa t (9:20). When Moses next warn . f a e of locusts, the officials urge Pharaoh to let the Israelites go (10•;.
0 fa plague
Alh I h dh. . , C.11·3) t oug 1 t ose aroun mt gradually concede to the LORD’s po Ph · · · bb I · · wer, ara h remams stu orn y resistant. Nevertheless, even he is forced to k 0 . f . . . ma e cone
s1ons as a result o the d1v111e signs and wonders. Initially he ,·s ·1i· es- h w, mg to I t e people go on the condition that Moses prays for the removal of h f et
~8:8) . Next, though he desires that the Israelites should stay within ~g; ;o~s 1s persuaded to let them go a little way into the dese rt (8:25-28). Alt:o~ e after the hail he ac tually scares char the people m ay go (9:28) chi· d gh h
, s oes not appen then. When Moses threatens an invasion of locusts Pharaoh ·
d II . ‘ 1s pre-pa re co a ow the Israelite me n, bur nor the women and children to a • . • ~a~
oner sacrifices co che LORD (10:8-11) . Fmally he concedes char men w d
. . , omen an children may go, bur nor their flocks and herds (10:24) . However in . ‘
f h . ·11 · • , spne o 1s apparent w1 mgness to give way co Moses and Aaron in che face f divine signs and wonders, Pharaoh persistencly refuses co let the people go~
The fina l demonstration of God’s power to Pharao h and the Egyptians involves the death of the male firstbo rn. At this point the narrative expands to give a detailed account of the events surrounding the night on which the Israelites are delivered from Egypt. The Passove r not only marks the deliverance of the Israelites from bondage to Pharaoh; it also involves the consecration of the Israelite firstborn males as holy to the LORD. 10 As a result of the death of all the male firstborn in Egypt, Pharaoh recognizes and concedes to the power of the LORD. No longer can he deny a ny knowledge of the G o d who has d em- onstrated his existence by signs and wonders that have surpassed a nything the Egyptians have previously witnessed.
Although Pharaoh permits the Israelites to leave Egypt after the dea th of the firstborn, there is to be one further demonstration of the LoRD’s power. To achieve this, God delays the Israelites’ depa rture for Canaan, and they remain in Egypt on the weste rn side of the Lake of Reeds (cf. 13:18; 15:4). When Pharaoh and his army pursue their former slaves, the Israelites believe themselves trapped and are terrified (14:10-12). H owever, when Moses stretches
10. See chap. 14 below.
. Wu o l s T u E L o
his sraff God provides a safe escape •n 1 0 ut f h route fo h ·ded waters o t e sea. When the Egyptians f lrl t e people throu~L h
“‘ h h” . . h o ow M &• t e d’ d over t e sea, t 1s time wit tragic c • oses stret h
1-han . onseque f c es O h” “N tone of them survived” (14:28). Thr h nces or Pharaoh’ Ut is o h L , . oug repetiti s soldiers·
rtention to r e O RD s prime motive in dest . on, verses 4 and 18 d . a ·11 k h I roying th E raw E Yptians w1 now t at am the LORD ,, E 1. e gyptian arm “T g h I · ar •er Ph h y: he uest co let t e peop ego by stating “Wh . h arao rejected M , reQ I ,,, (5 2) h • o 1s t e LOR h oses s h·rn and let Israe go. : . P araoh eventual) ct·
0 , t at I should b I h. . d I h y iscovers h h o ey
b obeyed. T 1s ep1so e a so ighlights the ch . w Y t e LoRo sh Id e d f . angingatf d ou f Om unbelief an ear m the face of the Eg . !tu e of the lsra 1. r . YPtian thr ( e 1tes and crust i~ the light o_f the LoRo’s deliverance (14:31 eat 14:10-12) to faith
As a fittmg conclusion to the account of th d” . ). · f • e 1v1ne de)”
Slaved Israelites rom Egyptian control the exod . iverance of the en- I b . ‘ us narrative d and the people ce e rate m song the majesty and recor show Moses
· • h power of the L Here the narrauve sw1tc es from prose to poet Th ORO (15:1- 18) .”
b h ry. e exalt d I poetry conveys etter t an prose the thoughts d f I” e anguage of the they worship the o ne who has taken pity on th an eed mgs of the Israelites as . B h . em an rescued th f tyrant’s power. Y re earsmg what has alread b em rom the
· d • . Y een recorded · reader too 1s encourage to participate in the I b . m prose, the . ce e rations of h I .
As the people respond m adoration and pr . f h t e srael1tes. f a1se or w at C d h I done, they look orward with confidence to th f . 0 as a ready
. h e uture. The1r so I by focusmg on w at God h as yet to accomp\” h h . ng cone udes
h . b . . is on t e,r behalf . h ricular emp as1s emg given to the people’ s d 11. . , wit par-. we mg with God h. mounram (15:17-18). In the light of past event d f on is sacred hardly surprising that at the end o f this secti·o s an dutufre expectation, it is
n we rea o M . · d I women playing ta mbourines and d ancing with . mam an a I the
JOY.
The Sinai Covenant
Following their divine rescue from Egypt th I 1· . . . , e srae 1tes gradually pro d
to Mount S111a1 111 fulfillment o f wha t God h 1. Id cee h . as ear 1er to Moses (cf 3·ll) Once t ere, they experience further developments •·nth . 1 . h: . ..
G d A · I e1r re auons 1p with o . . spec1a agreement.’ o~ covenant, is established between God and the
Israel1tes, based o n the pnnc1ple that if the peopl b G d h h • be his r d • e O ey o , t en t ey will
. reasure possession. Instructions a re given for the construction of a smtab\t~ellmg place for the LORD, to be located in the middle o f the Israelite ca mp!· f is would en able God to be visibly present among his people. As a resu to these dcveloprn t . h I -11 h . . f h . e n s , t e peop e w1 ave a more mumate knowledge 0
t eir God. N o lo nge r will h e only live in heaven and at a distance from the
11 . The initial Hebrew verb · E d 15 I · d. h h. · b M _ . in xo • : in 1cates t att 1s song 1s sung on a regular basis Y oscs and the Israd1tcs and not just on one occasion.
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T ,1 1. M ,., , ,.. T 11 , M , , o , T 11 , r, , , ,. 1 , u ( 11
Israelites. God comes ro dwell on the earth in anticipation of the temple-city that has yet to he estahlishcd.
At Sinai , God reveals himself in a new way_ to t_he Israelites. Three aspects of this revelation arc significant. First, _attent_1on 1s drawn to the holiness of God’s narurc. We sec this in the instructions given to Moses. The people must consecrate themselves, wash rhcir clothes, and absrarn fr_om sexual relations for three days ( J 9: J 4-15). Furthermore, Moses must establish a boundary around rhe mountain in order to prevent the people from coming into direct conracr with God; even the priests are subject to this constraint. As the ground near the hurning hush was made holy by God’s presence (3:5), so too is Mounr Sinai (19:23). Second, God ‘s prcscncc–accompanied by thunder and lightning, fire and smoke, and the violent trembling of the mountain (19:16-19)-is seen, heard, and felt by all the people. This theophany marks the arrival of God at the mountain. Contrary to what some scholars claim, God was not perceived as dwelling 011 Mount Sinai. Third, God speaks directly to all those gathered at rhe foot of the mountain and declares the principal obligations to which they must adhere in order for the covenant relationship to be established (20: 1- 17). The effect of all rhis on the people is such that they ask Moses to mediate wirh God on rheir behalf. Moses subsequently receives further obligations concerning the covenant (20:22-23:33). Both sets of obligations reflect God’s narure, especially his divine attributes of righteousness and compassion. 12
Following rhe rarificarion of rhe Sinai covenant (24:3-8), Moses is summoned into God ‘s presence to receive instructions for buildin~ a tent, or tabe~nacle, that will be God ‘s dwelling place on earth. The special nature of this tenr reflects certain aspects of God ‘s character, in particular his sovereignty and holiness. The precious metals and bluish fabrics used in its construction are indicative of royalty, and the appointment of priests and the consecration of all the furnishings underline the holiness of God.
13
While Moses is receiving God’s insrructions for construcring rhe tabernacle, rhe people who remain ar rhe foot of Sinai desire to have a symbol of the LoRD ‘ s presence. This ironically resulrs in the making of a golden calf. The tabernacle, with its golden furnishings, will portray the LORD as a royal personage, but the golden calf, in marked contrast, represents him as a mere beasr. Although rhe people offer sacrifices, their worship of the calf degrades the one who has delivered rhem from slavery in Egypt. Worship, to be true, must be based on a right perception of God. The book of Exodus emphasizes the importance
of knowing God as he truly is, and not as we imagine him to be. Following the golden calf incident, Moses asks to see God’s glory (33:18).
From the LoRo’s response, it is clear that he equates his glory with “all my goodness” (33: 19). To assure Moses of his identity, God proclaims his personal
12. For a fuller discussion of rhc Sinai covcnanr, sec chap. 15 below. 13. For a fuller discussion of rhe tabernacle, see chap. 16 below.
\\111 0 t s r uE l o a o?
rhc LORD (Yahweh). lnreresringly, when God pr . I -1111c, ” h .d h . f ev1ous y revealed h. 11 •
0 Moses. Moses 1 1s ace, because he was afr -d I k is , JTlC t • 31 ro 00 at G dn 11 3
6 ) Now he displays a greater confidence. Though Mos 0
(3· . . d . I es was granted the · runiry ro sec Go as no one e se had done even he ca I k Ppor . ‘ nnot oo on th 0 . . face with immu111ry (33:20). e
d1v1ne I h . If “”hen God revea s 1mse to Moses on top of rhe mount • h “‘ d · “f • . am, e stresses
nlv his mercy an compassion, o rg1v111g wickedness rebel!’ d . n 11or o , 1 . h . . . . ” , 1011 an srn 4 7 Cf 33· 19), bur a so is 1ust1ce. He does no t leave rhe glii·lry · h d (3 : ; · · . . . unpunrs e n 4 7. cf 32:34). The revelation of rhese d1v111e characteristics to M . (3 : , ‘ . . OSes IS SO
. •ficant rhat this passage is echoed on many occasions in the Old -r s1gni , estament ( Num. 14:18; Neh. 9:17; Pss. 86: 15; 103:8; 145:8; Joel 2: 13· Jon 4.2) 1 e.g., h , • . . n rhis dramatic setting: we ave, verbally st~red , two of the most important characrerisncs of God s naturc:—mercy and 1ust1ce—qualities that have already been revealed rhroug~ his deliverance o_f rhe Israelites from Egypt.
Apart from this umque encounrer with God o n rhe mountain, Moses also communes with God regula rly by entering a rent that is pitched at some distance from the main encampment. 14 Given its specific function, this tent is known as rhe “rent o~ meeting,’.’ (33:7).15 Here Moses enjoys a unique and personal relarionsh1p with God: The LORD would speak to Moses face to face, as one speaks to a friend” (33: 11) . Although they are in close proximity to each other even Moses the faithful servant is not permitted to look directly on God· 33:9 implies that rhe renr curtain shields Moses, who is within, from the L ORD: who is without. Remarkably, every time Moses meets with God, his face becomes radiant and remains so afterward (34:29- 35). 16
When the rabernacle is finally erected, a cloud covers it and the glory of the LORD fills it (40:34). God now dwells in the midst of the people. T he tabernacle becomes the “rem of meeting” (40:35), replacing rhe tent previously used by Moses (cf. 33:7-11). Moses wenr inside the earlier tent and God remained outside (33:9); now God dwells within the tent and Moses stays outside (40:35). God ‘s presence is visible to everyone through the cloud and fire that settle upon the tabernacle. From here he guides them o n their journeys (40:36–38). Appropriately, Exodus comes to a dramatic conclusion by recording the ar- rival of the g lorious presence of the sovereign God as he comes to dwell in the midst of his people Israel.
14. The tenses of the Hebrew verbs in 33:7- 11 anJ 34:34-35 indicate chat rhcse passages describe events that occur regularly. of 15, Thi~’ rent of meeting should nor be confused with the rahernaclc, also known as thc_~tem
_ meetmg (e.g., 40:2, 6), which was constructed only lacer (36:8-38) anJ was pitched 111 rhe midst of the Israeli re cncampmcnr (Num. I :5.3; 2:2, 17), Sec: chap. 16 bdow.
16· Moses’s radiant face secs him apart from the rest of rhe people as God’s mcsscnger. When he communicates God ‘s words ro rhc pc:opk, he speaks wirh his face uncovered. Ar all other timhcs he covers his face wirh a veil. In this war the Israel ites arc able to know when Moses speaks Wit divine authority and when he speaks on his own behalf.
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Old Testament Summary
h b l ‘ttlc doubt that the most important theme running th
T ere can e ‘ . d Th h’ hi . rough th b k f E
dus is that of knowrng Go . e text rg ights the differ c oo o xo . If c . .6 ent wa . h. h G d may reveal hrmse , 10cusmg on attn utes that lie at h Ys
,n w JC o . . h’ h 1· h’ t every h f h
. nature· his sovereign ma1csty, 1s o mess, rs awesome gl earto 1s · · . h d h’ ory h·
form wonders his rrg teousness, an 1s compassion N ‘ rs power to per ‘ h h h . · Ot onl d
. God make himself known toot ers t roug actions and words· . . Y oes , . ··d . . . , s1gn1fi.
I E odus also describes how he comes to res1 e as divine king in th canty, x I h 1 1. h every heart of the Israelite camp. As a resu t, t e srae 1tes ave an opportunity to
know God in a unique way.
New Testament Connections
Many of the theological ideas hig_hlighte~ in the book of Exod~s reappear in the New Testament. Those associated with the Passover, the Smai covenant and the tabernacle will be considered in the nex t three chapters respective!;. The themes of testing in the wilderness and God’s remarkable provision for the people are dealt with in chapter 21 below. Here we shall focus briefly on a number of other ways in which the exodus story is echoed in the New
Testament . The New Testament writers generally picture God in the same way as he
is revealed in Exodus. Paul highlights the sovereign majesty of God when he refers to him as “the King eternal” (1 Tim. 1:17) and “the blessed and only Ruler, the King of kings and Lord of lords, who alone is immortal and who lives in unapproachable light, whom no one has seen or can see” (1 Tim. 6:15-16). Similarly, the author of Hebrews, quoting Deuteronomy 4:24, speaks of worshiping God “with reverence and awe, for our ‘God is a consuming fire'” (12:28-29) .
Of all the New Testament writings, John’s Gospel probably contains the broadest range of allusions to the exodus story. The following are the more obvious. First, the early chapters of Exodus and John’s Gospel share a similar interest in “signs. “17 Apart from the resurrection, seven signs in J ohn’s Gospel draw attention to the uniqueness of Jesus:
water to wine (2:2-11)
healing of an official’s son (4:46-54)
healing of paralyzed man (5:1-15)
feeding of 5,000 (6:1-14)
walking on water (6:16-21)
17. The Greek word semeio • · ” · · · • · · J ” n, sign, ts someumcs translated into English as “m,rac c.
W11 0 Is T Ii t. Loflo l
. f blind ma n (9:1-41) healing o 1–44) . . of Laza rus ( 11 : ra1s1ng
h of the Gospel , these signs witness to Jesus’s divine nature. h aut or . . h fort e f med many other signs m t e presence of his disciples, which Per or h . ~Jesus d din this book. Butt ese are written that you may believe that
are not rec,o~ essiah, rhe Son of God, a nd that by believing you may have life Jesus is thc.: ,, ~0:30-31) . While the “signs” performed by Jesus are all posi- in his name –
11 marked contrast to the signs of “judgment” in Exodus, it is
·,, nature, 1 h · · b h b k h h. · rive I thy that t e signs m or oo s ave somet mg m common. I norewor f h fi b . . sure Y . blood and the death o t e rst orn m Exodus arc replaced m
ater rnto d · · Thew I with “signs” of hope: water turne mto wme and a firstborn hn’s Gospe
Jo d from death. raise d . marked contrast to the Synoptic Gospels, the Gospel of John
Secon ‘ 1 .nular attention on various visits undertaken by Jesus to Jerusalem.
es paruc . . focus ·f e only had John’s record , we would be mclmed to place most of Indeed,
1 . “‘. try 1·n Jerusalem. Jesus’s visits to Jerusalem coincide with major s’s m1111s
Jesu h c · als that celebrate the exodus fro m Egypt: Passover (2:13; 11:55); J
·s rest!V . . ewi 1 (7·2)· a feast (5:1). Furthermore, m John’s Gospel John the Baptist t bernac es · , a .
6 Jesus as ” the La mb of God” (1:29, 36); perhaps most significant of
descn es h . f h p is h cifixion of Jesus occurs at t e time o t e assover. all t e cru d · c f h ‘ G I . h Third, another very distinctive an umque reature o Jo n s ospe 1s t e
. of “I am” sayings of Jesus: senes
I am rhe bread of life. ( 6:35)
I am the light of the world. (8:12)
Jam rhe gate. (10:7, 9; “door,” NIV 1984)
I am the good shepherd . (10:11)
I am the resurrection and the life. (11 :25)
J am the way and the truth a nd the life. (14:6)
I am the true vine. ( 15: I)
Additionally, Jesus uses ” I am” without completing the predicate with a comple- ment on a number of other occasions (Greek : 8:24, 28, 58; 13: 19). While the precise link between these “I am” saying and the book of Exodus is open to discussion,19 it seems highly li kely that the author of John’s Gospel sees in
18. For further comments on the links between John’s Gospel and the Passover, see chap. 14 below.
19. Although some writers have connected Jcsus’s special use of the expression “1 am” with God’s use of the same words in Exo<l. 3:14, the ” I am” expressions in John’s Gospel possibly echo similar expressions in the book of Isaiah {esp. 41:4; 43: 10, 13, 25; 46:4; 48: 12 [NIV: ” I am he”)). Given that the phrase “I am” in Isaiah probably alludes back to Exocl. 3:14, it is surely
199
. \’ I· NT AT l ll r II T 11 I· tv\ A IN T II H I I. S (H l II I· .
. _ · l4: “God said to Moses, ‘l AM WHO I AM.. ll them an a\\uston to Exodus 3· \’ . “l AM has sent me to you.”‘” is . t the Israe ttes. . 1s what you are to say O that link John’s Gospel with Exodus
ln the \ight of the other fe_arnres ‘ tatement “lam the light of thew’ w\ e . d d e m Jesus s s or d
are probably mten e t~ se lk • n darkness but will have the light · ,, \ f \\ , w1\\ never wa i ‘ . of ~ ,oever o ows me h \ d nd fire that guided the lsraelit . \’f ” 11 \ 8 12) eference to t e c ou a es in ie ‘:’om : ard 13·21-22·14:19·40:38).Jesusalsoclearlyalludestoth the w1\derness (Exo • · ‘ ‘ h “I h e
\ . h i\derness when e comments, am t e bread
manna that lsrae ate m t e w d d h 11 b d
c h n” (John 6:41). In ee , as we s a o serve in that came own 1rom eave . . • h d chapter 22 (be\ow), John 6 is especially nch m allusions tot e exo us experi-
ence of the lsrae\ites. . T · c J h ‘s Gospe\ we find other New Testament lmks with urning 1rom o n , . ,
E d l hl·s Letter to the Romans, Pau\ refers bnefly to God s remark in xo us. n d’ l h’ Exodus 9: 16 that he has raised up Pharaoh in order to isp ay is power (Rom. 9:17). Focusing throughout Romans 9 on the sovereign~y ~f _God, ~au\ draws on various examples to highlight God’s freedom to use md1v1duals ma variety of ways for the outworking of his purposes.
With vivid imagery the author of Hebrews contrasts Mount Sinai with Mount Zion, the heavenly Jerusalem (cf. Heb. 12:22).
You have not come to a mountain that can be touched and that is burning with fire; to darkness, gloom and storm; to a trumpet blast or to such a voice speak- ing words that those who heard it begged that no further word be spoken to them, because they could not bear what was commanded: “If even an animal touches the mountain, it must be stoned.” The sight was so terrifying that Moses said, “lam trembling with fear.” But you have come to Mount Zion, to the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem. You have come to thousands upon thousands of angels in joyful assembly, to the church of the firstborn , whose names are written in heaven. You have come to God, the Judge of all , to the spirits of the righteous made perfect, to Jesus the mediator of a new covenant, and to the sprinkled blood that speaks a better word than the blood of Abel. (Heb. 12:18-24)
The ancient Israelites encountered God at an earthly mountain; now those embraced by the new covenant “are receiving a kingdom that cannot be shaken” (Heb. 12:28).
appropriate to observe a \ink between Je , ” . . a divine designation in Exod.
3 : 14
_ suss use of I am” m John’ s Gospel and its use as
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